Ethnomathematics study: Mathematical activities and concept embedded in the traditional farming activities in Lingko Lodok of Manggarai community
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Abstract
This study explores the ethnomathematical dimensions embedded in the rice-farming practices of the Wae Nakeng community within the Lingko Lodok system of Manggarai, Indonesia. Grounded in the premise that local cultural practices contain rich mathematical knowledge, the research aims to identify mathematical activities and school mathematics concepts embedded in field structure, farming stages, and the use of traditional tools and measurement systems. The study employed a qualitative ethnographic approach, collecting data through in-depth interviews, participant observations, and field documentation. The data were analyzed using an interactive model encompassing data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing, with the coding process guided by Bishop’s framework of mathematical activities. The findings reveal two major results. First, the farming practices demonstrate key mathematical activities, including counting, measuring, designing, locating, and explaining, as reflected in land division, seed preparation, planting patterns, irrigation management, and harvesting processes. Second, these activities embody various school mathematics concepts, such as arithmetic operations, ratio and proportional reasoning, linear functions, arithmetic sequences, geometric shapes and transformations, and standard and non-standard measurement. Overall, this study highlights the potential of Lingko Lodok-based ethnomathematics to inform meaningful mathematics instruction that bridges local knowledge with formal school curricula.
INTRODUCTION
Mathematics, as both a human and cultural construct, has long been intertwined with the lived experiences and practices of diverse societies across the world. It does not emerge in isolation, but rather evolves through human interactions with their physical and social environments. AsBishop (1988)pointed out the social aspects of mathematics are manifested in five significant levels of cultural, societal, institutional, pedagogical, and individual scale. However, in modern educational systems, mathematics is often taught as an abstract, universal, and context-free body of knowledge(D'Ambrosio, 2007; Wedman & Bennet, 2026). This detachment has contributed to a widespread perception among students that mathematics is difficult, monotonous, and irrelevant to their daily lives(Dhungana et al., 2023; Sukestiyarno et al., 2023; Udil & Israfil, 2022). Consequently, students frequently struggle to establish meaningful connections between mathematical concepts taught in schools and the mathematical reasoning inherent in their everyday experiences(Banjo et al., 2025; Dominikus, Udil, et al., 2024; Madimabe et al., 2022). In many educational contexts, particularly in developing countries, this disconnects results in limited mathematical literacy, a lack of engagement, and poor transferability of mathematical knowledge(Cevikbas & Kaiser, 2021; Leton et al., 2025; Udil et al., 2025; Udil et al., 2024).
Ethnomathematics emerged as a response to this epistemological and pedagogical gap. Introduced by Ubiratan D’Ambrosio in the late 1970s, ethnomathematics advocates for the recognition of mathematics as a cultural product which embedded within the practices, artifacts, and worldviews of different societies(D'Ambrosio, 1985, 1999). Ethnomathematics can be understood as the study of how diverse cultural groups develop and apply mathematical ideas, practices, and techniques to understand, explain, and solve problems within their natural and socio-cultural environments(D'Ambrosio, 1985; Rosa & Orey, 2016). It reflects the dynamic relationship between mathematical thinking and cultural contexts(Bishop, 1988; Orey & Rosa, 2007), emphasizing mathematics as a human activity rooted in tradition, art, and lived experience(D'Ambrosio, 1999; Gravemeijer & Terwel, 2000; Rosa & Orey, 2013). It challenges the dominant notion of abstract, mechanistic, and culture-free mathematics by emphasizing the contextual nature of mathematical thinking.
Therefore, the ethnomathematical perspective values mathematical practices as cultural artifacts and activities, encompassing counting systems, spatial reasoning, measurement, design, and problem-solving strategies grounded in local traditions. Ethnomathematics serves not only as a descriptive framework for documenting cultural mathematics but also as a critical paradigm for understanding the plurality of mathematical knowledge systems(Meeran et al., 2024; Rosa & Orey, 2016).Bishop (1988)proposed that all human cultures engage in six universal mathematical activities: counting, measuring, locating, designing, playing, and explaining. These activities represent fundamental cognitive and social processes through which mathematical ideas are generated and transmitted across generations. They provide a conceptual bridge between cultural practices and mathematical reasoning, allowing researchers to identify implicit mathematical concepts within non-formal contexts. Within this study, the ethnomathematical lens is used to examine how the lodok system embodies mathematical ideas that are both contextually functional and symbolically meaningful to the Manggarai people.
In recent decades, ethnomathematics research has expanded significantly across the globe, examining mathematical ideas embedded in indigenous technologies, architecture, traditional games, weaving patterns, and agricultural systems (Batiibwe, 2024;Cervantes Barraza & Lisnani, 2025;Kusi & Bonyah, 2025;Kyeremeh et al., 2023;Nasrum et al., 2025). In Indonesia, the ethnomathematical movement has gained increasing attention since the early 2010s, driven by the country’s rich cultural diversity and its need for contextually relevant mathematics education(Dewi et al., 2025; Endilina et al., 2025; Iffah et al., 2025). Research in this area has explored various cultural objects and activities, ranging from traditional houses, dances, games, batik patterns in Java and traditional woven fabric from others region, to the others cultural rituals(Hendriyanto et al., 2023). Despite this growing body of literature, there remains a noticeable geographic and thematic imbalance in the research landscape. Most ethnomathematics studies have been concentrated in western Indonesia, as this region has been the center of educational development in the country, supported by better access to academic institutions, research resources, and educational infrastructure(Iffah et al., 2025; Wibawa et al., 2025). The eastern regions remain largely underexplored and need greater attention to generate richer and more diverse ethnomathematical insights that potentially embody mathematical ideas(Dominikus, Udil, et al., 2023; Iffah et al., 2025). Moreover, while existing studies often focus on artistic or architectural artifacts(Iffah et al., 2025; Riski et al., 2024), there has been limited attention to agricultural systems and farming activities as living cultural practices that embody rich mathematical reasoning(Pathuddin et al., 2023). This limitation is particularly evident in studies of eastern Indonesian communities, including the Manggarai society, where the farming practices inlingko lodokrepresents a complex socio-cultural practice that integrates land organization, farming procedures, and the use of traditional tools and measurement units. Because such practices occur in real working contexts rather than in preserved artifacts, they require longer field observation and direct participation, which may explain why they have been less frequently investigated. Therefore, a focused study on the ethnomathematical aspects of agricultural activities in thelingko lodokis necessary to broaden the scope of ethnomathematics research and to reveal forms of mathematical reasoning that emerge in living cultural practices rather than in material artifacts alone.Manggarai is one of the culturally rich communities in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, renowned for its diverse
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